Hegel’s Law and Antigone’s Law
All the shapes that consciousness passes through before Spirit constitute only the abstract self-analysis of Spirit itself. The real history begins with Spirit. And it is quite remarkable to see that Hegel puts forward an analysis of a literary work, i.e., Sophocles’s fiction Antigone, at the very beginning of the journey of Spirit. Therefore, the term ‘real’ in ‘the real history begins…’ should not be understood as implies that the history at stake is something objective, that is, independent of consciousness or the self. On the contrary, Spirit emerges exactly when the self and the world are no longer held opposed to each other. It is the overcoming of such an antithesis. Then, Hegel’s choice of a literary work as a beginning point for Spirit’s journey makes sense since it is in literature that the world appears not simply as a collection of things or objects standing over against consciousness, but essentially as the lived world for the self. Spirit is the universal substance that provides the solid ground for all the actions of individual selves, while, at the same time, it itself is produced as a result of those actions. In other words, Spirit does not have any existence prior to, or apart from, the individual actions themselves. Being immanent to the individuals and their works, Spirit is defined as their mutual connections and relations in which everyone’s life is in harmony with everyone else’s. In short, it is a community.
Spirit, however, is alive insofar as it is continuously being sundered into individual actions. For this reason, it is split into substance and the consciousness of the substance; or better, action divides Spirit into the universal essence and the individualized reality. Self-consciousness, as the middle term, makes explicit the implicit unity of the two. Thus, self-consciousness constitutes the place for the mutual transition of the opposites in which individualized reality gains an ethical, universal significance, and the universal essence (as well as its end) is brought down to the earth and concretely realized. In this process, however, the simple substance itself is split into distinct ethical spheres dominated by either a human law or a divine law. Accordingly, the self-consciousness itself is split into two; and each of them is assigned to one of the ethical spheres. Belonging to one law only, the particular self-consciousnesses come to gain a deceptive kind of knowledge which is characterized by its ignorance of the other law. The two ethical spheres and their own self-consciousnesses clash with each other and subsequently experience the mutual downfalls. This is basically what happens in the Greek tragedy Antigone. Hence, the tragedy in which Hegel is interested is not simply the one in which an innocent individual whose consciousness merely knows one law is led to his misfortune by the transcendent, and therefore mysterious, force of the other law, as in the Oedipus Rex, but also, and above all, the one in which a fatal competition between different belongings takes place. It is the tragedy of civil war.
Analyzing the Antigone, Hegel defines the human law as the law of the state whose individual agent is found in the government. It is in the form of manifest reality which is conscious of itself. The authority of the government is therefore universally and publicly accepted by every citizen. Standing opposed to this, there is the divine law whose reality is not consciously acknowledged by the members of the community, but rather consists in the fact that it simply and immediately is. In this sense, the divine law is the natural and unconscious law that is hidden under the public order of the state. This nether world governed by the divine law is the sphere of the family.
As a natural but ethical community, the family, however, must also have its own universal function. Since the functions such as love and economy are related to the sphere of senses and appetites, they cannot be universal. Nor can the various services provided for an individual (including education) be the universal function of the family, because they only have a specific or limited effect on the individual. Since the ethical deed of the family must be carried out upon the individual as a whole freed from his individuality itself, it no longer concerns the living but the dead. Hegel thus finds the ethical dimension of the family in its ritual for the dead. The burial of the dead is performed because, when one of the family members dies, the rest of the family cannot immediately sever their ties to the dead and simply consider him or her a thing. In other words, it is an attempt to spiritualize the dead by removing his or her decaying body from the sight and also protecting it from becoming a prey to lower life forms. It makes him or her eternally belong to the community. Through this act of burial, the dead are inscribed in the genealogy of the family qua an ethical community.
Now, the relation between the government and the family is that between the whole and the part. The government does not simply exclude or suppress the family as an inferior power from the domain of its ruling, but rather allows it to become a constitutive part. Thus, we find Hegel’s remarkable notion of power. Power does not operate by simply excluding or crushing other powers. On the contrary, power is always a power exercised upon another power (as Foucault will later say). It operates through the power of the other, that is, by absorbing it into itself and allowing it to have its own place within the hierarchy. In short, it uses the power of the other as its own. For Hegel, then, the totalizing action of the superior power upon various inferior powers is never blatantly totalitarian. This is also one of the essential points of the Hegelian master-slave dialectic. The lesson that the self-consciousness learns in the first encounter with another self-consciousness and the subsequent life-death struggle is that exterminating the other’s existence would never bring about what it desires (namely, the other’s recognition), and hence, it must let the other live. Power comes into being, not through the death, but through the very life of the other. Power, in this sense, is already a “bio-power.”
The power of the government as a whole, however, also needs to bring the parts together into a unity and to make them feel their dependence upon the sovereign power. It is for this purpose, as Hegel brilliantly argues, that the government goes to war. The most common cause of war, then, is not really in the conflicts between the states, but within the states themselves. War is an attempt of the government to shake the plurality of its various parts and thus (re)unite them into the national community. It is the violation of the independence of the parts and their own way of life. In fact, this is exactly how Lenin (who is known to be an enthusiastic reader of Hegel) will later define the imperialist war, since, according to him, the imperialist war is an attempt of the ruling class to suppress its own proletarian class by using the power of the other state engaged in the war. And, from such a violation by the government, there arises the possibility that the implicit contradiction of the human law and the divine law is brought out in the daylight. War turns into a civil war.
There is, however, another contradiction that overdetermines the contradiction between the two laws (I emphasize, it “overdetermines” the other). It is the contradiction of the sexual division of labor which arises from the sphere of the divine law, although its effect is certainly not confined to that shadowy sphere.
According to Hegel, there are three different relationships formed in the family: husband and wife, parents and children, and brothers and sisters. It is the last one which is privileged by Hegel. He argues that the self-recognition achieved between husband and wife is a natural one and not an ethical one, and that, for this reason, this relationship is not Spirit itself, but only an image of Sprit. Therefore, husband and wife seek the actual existence of their relationship in the child. Yet, the relationship between parents and children does not have an enduring being, either, due to the alteration of generations. Children grow up, leave their parents, and make their own family. Since brothers and sisters do not desire each other like husband and wife, or form a transitory relationship by giving, or receiving from, each other an independent being-for-self like parents and children, they can reach a state of rest and equilibrium. Thus, Hegel says, “They [brother and sister] are free individualities in regard to each other” (par. 457). But right after this statement, he argues, “Consequently, the feminine, in the form of the sister, has the highest intuitive awareness of what is ethical.” This is precisely where he introduces the sexual division of labor or the disparity within it. One might expect that a similar statement is made for the masculine. But, this does not happen, because the brother or his consciousness does not remain in the family, but makes a transition to the state, to the public citizenly sphere, to the human law, while the sister or her consciousness is tied down to the family, to the private non-citizenly sphere, to the divine law. Hence, there occurs the transition/non-transition of brother and sister from the “free individualities” to the sexually divided individualities/non-individualities. Hegel writes:
In the ethical household, it is not a question of this particular husband, this particular child, but simply of husband and children generally; the relationships of the woman are based, not on feeling, but on the universal. The difference between the ethical life of the woman and that of the man consists just in this, that in her vocation as an individual and in her pleasure, her interest is centered on the universal and remains alien to the particularity of desire; whereas in the husband these two sides are separated; and since he possesses as a citizen the self-conscious power of universality, he thereby acquires the right of desire and, at the same time, preserves his freedom in regard to it. Since, then, in this relationship of the wife there is an admixture of particularity, her ethical life is not pure; but in so far as it is ethical, the particularity is a matter of indifference, and the wife is without the moment of knowing herself as this particular self in the other partner. (ibid., emphasis mine)
Therefore, love is a duty for the woman, while it is a “right” for the man. The woman is supposed to be indifferent to whom she marries, because she is not only prohibited from appearing in the public sphere as an individual with her own particular feelings and interests, but also she is forbidden from seeking her self-recognition in the private sphere itself. She must be assimilated to her role itself in the family, i.e., the universal service that she provides for her husband. The man, on the other hand, should decline his particular self while he serves in the public sphere, because he is the one who has to represent the sexually neutral universality of the human species itself. And, for this seeming self-sacrifice, he gains the right to regress into his natural immediacy at night, namely, in the family. Since he appears as an individual with particular self-interests in the familial area, he preserves the “freedom” to choose his spouse, his own particular object for love and pleasure.
This is why the brother becomes an “irreparable” being for the sister. For the brief period between her childhood and her adulthood, the woman is allowed to possess her “free individuality” in relation to the brother. And such a free individuality is possible because it does not include any “natural desire.” Sisterly love is an unmixed and pure self-recognition acquired through the brother. For the brother, however, the same rule does not apply, since he does not have to remain in the family, but can go beyond the familial limit. He becomes a citizen without losing his own enjoyment or his own individuality.
It is in the heart of such an overdetermination of contradictions that the tragedy Antigone is situated. Antigone is not only a sister to her two brothers, but also is a fiancé of Creon’s son, Haemon. In other words, she does not merely belong to one family in an absolute way. She is rather in the process of transition, or rather, of non-transition. She is about to become a wife in another family whose patriarch happens to be the king of Thebes: Creon. Now, it is exactly during the familial transition that Creon issues the decree that prohibits the burial of Polyneices’s corpse, while commanding a funeral commemorating Eteocles. Such a proclamation of Creon’s certainly represents the position of the state, i.e., that of the universal, human law. Polyneices died as an enemy of Thebes, while Eteocles sacrificed himself for it. Then, it seems natural that Antigone’s disobedience to Creon’s decree also represents the position of the family, i.e., that of the particular, divine law. Both Polyneices and Eteocles were equally her brothers; hence, it would be unjust for her to bury only one of them.
Under this surface structure, however, there is another structure built in this story. That is, since Antigone is about to become Creon’s daughter-in-law and Haemon’s wife, Creon’s command to forbid the burial of Polyneices implies that the husband’s family qua a particular must have a superiority over the wife’s family. In other words, it means that for the male genealogy should the female genealogy be destroyed or oppressed. After all, the burial of the dead is not the state’s concern. It is the concern of the divine law, the family. If he truly represents the universality of the state, Creon cannot make an intervention in the burial of the dead. The war is over, and moreover his country has won it. Why does the burial of the dead matter so much to Creon? His decree therefore is nothing but an “acting-out” of his particularity. Hegel, in his own way, acknowledges this:
[I]t is the Justice of human law which brings back into the universal the element of being-for-self which has broken away from the balanced whole, viz. the independent classes and individuals; it is the government of the nation, which is the self-affirming individuality of the universal essence and the self-conscious will of all. The Justice, however, which brings back to equilibrium the universal in its ascendancy over the individual is equally the simple Spirit of the individual who has suffered wrong; it is not split up into two, the one who has suffered the wrong and an entity in a remote beyond. The individual himself is the power of the nether world, and it is his Erinys, his ‘fury’, which wreaks vengeance. For his individuality, his blood, still lives on in the household, his substance has an enduring reality. (par. 462, emphasis mine)
Hegel, here, does not simply say that Creon’s fury and act of vengeance are due to his individuality, but goes on to add immediately that his individuality itself is fundamentally rooted in the “household,” i.e., his family, his blood-relationship.
Hegel, however, does not fully articulate this issue here; instead, he somehow blurs it out by saying that it is the power of Nature qua the “abstract universality of mere being” (par. 463) that turns the conscious individual representing the community into a mere Thing (that is, the consciousness reduced to the level of Thing by his blind desire for revenge). But, from my point of view, what is at stake is not just the abstract universality of Nature, but precisely, the “admixture” of the universality with the particularity that has returned, as the repressed always does, to the man representing and working for the universal human law. As I mentioned, the man must renounce his particular being in the public domain in order to represent the human species as a whole, and, for this self-sacrifice, he gains the “right” to seek his particular object of love and pleasure in the private sphere of the family. Yet, now that the Justice of the human law itself is tainted by his blood, his universality and particularity are no longer separated as Hegel previously argued. The man’s universality is as impure as the woman’s. In this sense, his transition from the family to the state, that is, from the particularity to the universality, turns out to be as much a non-transition as hers. In fact, seen from this angle, his will to the universality of the sexually neutral “human” law, in the first place, is only an attempt to transcend the finitude of his sexed-being. But, if the finitude (and the consequent incompleteness) of the sexed-being is, in fact, the essence of life (since, as Luce Irigray says, it is the machines that do not have sex), overcoming it would be overcoming life, i.e., becoming death.
No action, however, has yet been committed. In order for the dreadful movement of the fate to begin to unfold, all the contradictions inherent in the ethical order must be brought together and condensed by a deed of an actual self. Hegel argues—and I think he is absolutely right on this point—that, although the ground for this movement is the ethical realm, what is active is self-consciousness. In other words, Spirit is already dead; it is a dead Thing. Speaking in a Marxist way, it is the accumulated dead labors. Therefore, it is the agents, and not the Spirit itself, who bring it into life through their living labors, namely, their actions. The agents of Spirit, of course, internally invert this relationship, as consciousness always does, and think that it is the Spirit that is calling them (God is calling me, the Country is calling me, etc.), when, in fact, it is the agents themselves who are calling it as their law, as their Spirit. Therefore, the subject’s recognition (He is calling me) is always a misrecognition. Speaking in a Lacanian-Zizekian fashion, the letter from the Other, the symbolic, always arrives at its destiny, because the symbolic is constituted as the living command only at its arrival, namely, through the (mis)recognition of the subjects. Consequently, before their (mis)recognition, there is no such thing as the symbolic.
Here, however, Spirit is split into the two laws, divine and human. And, Hegel argues, each sex is assigned only to one law. For this reason, the ethical self-consciousness does not see the other ethical self-consciousness having its own law and rights. The action of the other appears to it as an untoward reality or, at most, a contingent, isolated individual’s will. There, thus, follows the dialectic of the known and the unknown. The known is the law that the ethical self-consciousness accepts in the heart as its own, whereas the unknown is, or appears as, the objective world (reality) opposed to it. The world, of course, possesses its own law and truth. But, the ethical self-consciousness, completely submerged in its law, ignores the independence of the world. When it acts, the ethical self-consciousness only sees in its action the fulfillment of the law. Its action is an ethical action, and therefore cannot be perverted in any way.
This uncompromising ethical self-consciousness, however, is only its own antithesis. As soon as it initiates its action, that is, as soon as it attempts to actualize the law in reality, it loses the quality of the pure knowing. It is no longer a simple certainty of its immediate truth. By entering the realm governed by the necessity of the other law, it splits itself up into itself and the reality opposed to it. The necessity of the other law suddenly takes the acting consciousness by the back of the neck. Unexpected results follow. The ethical consciousness indeed has committed a crime. And yet, such unexpected results are not the accidents merely attached to the action; but they are the built-in necessary results of the action, because every action must be carried out through the unity of the known and the unknown (one cannot know all the circumstances). Hence, the ethical self-consciousness cannot argue for its innocence. Hegel points out that innocence is merely “non-action, like the mere being of stone, not even that of a child” (par. 468).
Hence, the only escape from such a dead end is for the ethical self-consciousness to admit actively and openly that its action is in fact criminal, and to take a full responsibility for it, even if this means risking its own life, i.e., getting punished by death. And this is exactly what Antigone does. Responding to her sister Ismene, she says: “Be as you choose to be; but for myself I myself will bury him [Polyneices]. It will be good to die, so doing. I shall lie by his side, loving him as he loved me; I shall be a criminal—but a religious one” (Antigone, 80-90). This constitutes the crucial difference between, on the one hand, the blind ethical self-consciousness which merely acts without thinking about the consequences of its action, and thus later pretends its innocence, and, on the other, the ethical self-consciousness of Antigone which already knows the unknown (the existence of the other law), and still decides to proceed to an action, admitting that she shall be a criminal. In this aspect, her action is not simply a crime. On the contrary, it is a crime that goes beyond the universality of the human law itself. Therefore, it is an act of divine revolt and a beginning of the civil war.
Hegel also recognizes such a radicality of Antigone’s action. He writes:
But the ethical consciousness is more complete, its guilt more inexcusable, if it knows beforehand the law and the power which it opposes, if it takes them to be violence and wrong, to be ethical merely by accident, and, like Antigone, knowingly commits the crime … The ethical consciousness must … acknowledge its opposite as its own actuality, must acknowledge its guilt … With this acknowledgement there is no longer any conflict between ethical purpose and actuality” (par. 470-1, emphasis mine).
Near the end of the chapter on “Morality,” too, Hegel, once again, proposes the same solution for the aporia of hypocrisy. The only way-out for the acting consciousness (or, what is the same, the “evil consciousness”) is a confession to its being evil.
In other words, evil would, it is true, thereby confess to being evil, but in so doing it would directly abolish itself and cease to be hypocrisy, and would not, as such, unmask itself. It admits, in fact, to being evil by asserting that it acts, in opposition to the acknowledged universal, according to its own inner law and conscience. (par. 662)
By her own deed, of course, Antigone is summoned before the law (of the state), and is punished by it. However, it is equally true that she, through the very same deed, simultaneously acquires the chance to disclose the existence of the divine law hidden in the nether world, to the human law and its self-conscious agent Creon. While discussing the dialectic of the acting consciousness and the judging consciousness, Hegel emphasizes that it is through the effect of language that the acting consciousness can raise its individuality to the level of universality (par. 656). As a matter of fact, he often privileges language over other expressions, e.g., the physiognomic expression. Yet, one should be careful not to judge it hastily as some kind of logocentrism (at least, not here), because what he is interested in is neither the constative aspect nor the communicative aspect of language, but rather its performative aspect: utterance and enunciation. Speech is an act. It is an act of declaration through which the self elevates itself as a being publicly displayed and revealed. It is a promise of its moral sincerity and validity. Hence, it is also a demand for others to acknowledge the universality of the self and its inner law. Replying to Creon that she knowingly disobeyed the proclamation by him, she declares that what is truly universal is the divine law that she follows.
Yes, it was not Zeus that made the proclamation; nor did Justice, which lives with those below, enact such laws as that, for mankind. I did not believe your proclamation had such power to enable one who will someday die to override God’s ordinances, unwritten and secure. They are not of today and yesterday; they live forever; none knows when first they were. These are the laws whose penalties I would not incur from the gods, through fear of any man’s temper. (Antigone, 495, emphasis mine)
Still, Antigone is punished by Creon who is cold hearted and blinded by his self-righteousness. But, unexpected things also happen to the judging consciousness. Why should the judging consciousness as well as the acting consciousness suffer devastating results of its judgment? Hegel’s idea here seems to be that, as long as a punishment is also an action, the judging consciousness itself cannot keep its status of pure judging. It necessarily enters the realm of the world, and thereby it encounters the necessity of the other law. And, as Hegel says, the individual in action does not exist as a being with a self, but with diverse selves. The self is split in action into the conscious part and the unconscious part. Again, it is the dialectic of the known and the unknown. Creon punishes Antigone, not knowing that his son Haemon, saddened by the death of his fiancé, will commit a suicide in front of the cave, and his wife Eurydice will also kill herself in sorrow for her son’s death. This is the power of the nether world (the familial relationship) in which the Spirit of the state itself has its unconscious root. It rises up in hostility and destroys the community based on the earthly human law.
This process in which the judging consciousness (qua universality) is inverted into the acting consciousness (qua particularity) is once again recapitulated by Hegel in terms of sexual difference. The human law in its general activity is the “manhood” of the community, and, in its real activity, is the government. The government maintains itself by consuming and absorbing the power of the families over which, Hegel argues, womankind presides. However, the family cannot be simply and totally suppressed because it is the essential element to the state itself. In other words, the family and the individualities stemming from it are the very arms and legs of the state itself. For the government, the family becomes at once both what should be excluded and what should be included. For this reason, the government creates an “internal enemy,” that is, womankind in general. The woman is an internal enemy because she can neither be simply excluded from (i.e., she is internal), nor fully admitted to (i.e., she is an enemy), the constitution of the community itself. Therefore, the exclusion of the woman must take the form of “internal exclusion” (Etienne Balibar). This is why Hegel says, “Womankind [is] the eternal irony of the community” (par. 475). In fact, do not the incarceration of the woman in the family and the exclusion of them from the citizenship exactly express the very from of the “internal exclusion”?
This is indeed an excellent analysis of patriarchy whose object cannot be limited to the ancient Greek society. And I believe that this must be strictly viewed as an analysis. That is to say, it is not an argument of Hegel’s. He certainly neither intends here to praise such a patriarchal system nor to despise it. His aim is simple: a precise analysis of the sexual economy and its contradiction. But, what becomes problematic is the fact that, in the work of Sophocles, the sexual economy has not yet acquired its stability, because it is still in the transition from the matriarchy to the patriarchy, which also finds its perfect image in the transition of Antigone herself from her own mother’s family to Creon’s family: the future wedding with Haemon. Moreover, Polyneices that she buries against Creon’s prohibition is her mother’s son (her half-brother having a different father), whereas Eteocles is her father’s as well as her mother’s. Thus, a special meaning is imposed upon Polyneices. He is not only Antigone’s brother, but also represents the genealogy of her mother. This is clearly shown when Antigone says, “But if I dared to leave the dead man, my mother’s son, dead and unburied, that would have been real pain” (Antigone, 505, emphasis mine). Hence, to leave Polyneices unburied is not only to dishonor her brother, but to sacrifice her mother for the honor of her father-in-law, or even that of the father in general.
This is why Luce Irigaray, in her “The Eternal Irony of the Community,” writes: “[Antigone] will choose to die a virgin, unwedded to any man, rather than sacrifice the ties of blood, rather than abandon her mother’s son to the dogs and vultures, leaving his double to roam in eternal torment.” Hence, the quality that Hegel assigns to Antigone in the name of “womankind”, in fact, has nothing to do with Antigone. It rather fits well to Ismene, because it is her who is finally locked up in Creon’s house-family, becoming men’s “internal enemy” together with the other women. Thus, well understood is the following order of Creon: “(He turns to the servants.) Bring her [Ismene] inside, you. From this time forth, these must be women, and not free to roam” (Antigone, 636, emphasis mine). The roaming woman is Antigone; she refuses to become Creon’s “internal enemy” (as his daughter-in-law and his son’s wife), who, seeking her pleasure only in youth and looking for her dignity in becoming a wife, ridicules him for the old age and the weakened body. She publicly refuses to be shut up in the private family.
What Hegel, therefore, never acknowledges is the fact that Antigone’s action does not simply represent the ethics of the family as a whole, but rather divides or differentiates the family itself, and that, furthermore, her action, by raising in the public sphere itself the issue of the sexually differentiated ethics of the family, also puts into question the sexually undifferentiated universality of the citizenship itself. I think Hegel is absolutely right when he says that it is action that divides substance as well as the self-consciousness and thereby starts all the movements. However, I believe that he is too quick to think that the sexual division is absolutely in accordance with the state-family division, such that each sex is assigned only to one sphere. As I emphasized earlier, the relation between the sexual division and the state-family division is not that of correspondence but that of overdetermination of contradictions. Since he thinks of it only in terms of correspondence, Hegel does not recognize that the transition/non-transition for Antigone (that is, from one family to another) is interrupted by her very action of divine revolt. She is just considered to be an “internal enemy” in the family, representing the part, the separatism, and the individualism that stir up the unity of the national community. Criticizing Hegel’s “single syllogistic system,” Irigaray writes:
And it is by no means sure that the rape to which she continues to be subjected is visible in broad daylight, for the rape may equally well result in her retreating down into a crypt where she is sealed off. Or else in the resurgence of an “essence” so different, so other, that even to expect it to “work on the outside” reduces it to sameness, to an unconscious that has never been anything but the unconscious of someone conscious of human law alone. Which is as much as to say that the crime can easily occur unnoticed and that the operation may never be translated into a fact. Unless each of these/its terms is doubled so radically that a single dialectic is no longer sufficient to articulate their copulation.
Hegel returns to the question of the tragedy at the end of the chapter on ‘Morality’. There, though in more theoretical terms, he repeats everything that he says while discussing the Antigone. The only difference is that, this time, he proposes a solution for the judging consciousness to avoid the tragic conclusion: forgiving. Forgiving does not mean that there will not be a punishment. On the contrary, it is what is achieved through a proper punishment. In other words, it is a process of differentiating the individual who has committed a crime from his or her guilt itself. Therefore, death penalty would be a failure of such a differentiation and an absence of punishment. By the act of forgiving, the judging consciousness can start afresh. It can rebuild a new relationship with the other individual, the acting consciousness.
This is indeed a humanist solution. But to forgive through a punishment is neither to change the judgment itself nor to give up the sovereign status of the judging consciousness. I do not see how one can reach, through this kind of forgiving, a mutual recognition without one-sidedness. I am not arguing here that there always must be a flat-out equality, because, I also think, equality is a matter of reversibility and flexibility, which, as I mentioned, is the most essential point of Hegel’s master-slave dialectic. But, in order for the reversibility of the power relationship to work properly, there must be a significant counter-power on the side of the acting consciousness itself, which must not be thought of in terms of physical force only. Irigaray argues that Antigone is not only the representative of herself, but also “becomes the voice, the accomplice of the people, the slaves, those who only whisper their revolt against their masters secretly.” Mutual recognition, I think, must be thought of in terms of the institutionalization of the counter-powers of the masses. And this would not simply mean the recognition of individualities by the already established universality of the state, but a simultaneous transformation and re-differentiation of the public sphere and the private sphere, through which mutual recognition can be materialized.